To begin this discussion, the authors discuss myths about massed practice. Most individuals believe they learn better when they mass practice, also known as cramming because it gives them a sense of mastery of the materials. Still, the material's massed practice does not allow the learner to commit the content to long term memory. According to the authors, learning can be defined as acquiring new knowledge and being able to recall it later. Authors state that picking up on the material is only one part of the learning process. Practice strategies are the other part of the learning process. Practicing is essential for learning and memory, and studies show practice, and interleaving with other material produces better retention and understanding of the content. To expel the myths that mass practice causes, the author discusses three practice techniques in the chapter. They are spaced practice, interleaved practice, and varied practice (Brown et al.,2014).  

           First, the authors discuss spaced practice and how it is more effective than massed practice because it requires more effort from the learner. It requires the learner not to cram the information but rather practice it over time. The authors reinforce this strategy by discussing a study of thirty-eight surgical residents. In this study, the surgical residents were asked to take a series of microsurgery lessons—the courses comprised of instruction and practice. A portion of the residents completed all four classes in one day. While the other half of the residents finished them spaced out with a week in between each course. A month later, the residents were given a test. Those residents who completed the lesson spaced out outperformed the other residents in all areas. Sixteen percent of the students who did all their courses in one day were unable to complete their surgeries altogether. Those students who were successful could do this because of the consolidation process involved with spaces out practice. Consolidation occurs when learners commit content to their long-term memory, and they can connect what they are learning to their prior knowledge (Brown et al.,2014). 

           Next, the authors discuss interleaved practice, which is practicing two or more subjects and skills simultaneously. They site a study of college students who practiced working geometry problems where one group did all questions in sequential order (massed practice). In comparison, the other group practiced the same questions but did them in clusters (interleaved practice). Initially, students who had practiced in sequential order outperformed those who mixed the problems. However, on the final test, the students who mixed up their practice problems outperformed those who only practiced in sequential order. This learning strategy feels like it takes longer because of this interleaving is unpopular and often an underutilized learning strategy. Teachers often do not like it, and students find the process confusing because, just as they start to understand the material, they are switched to a new concept. Research shows that interleaving rather than massed practice allows for greater mastery and retention (Brown et al., 2014). 

           Finally, the authors conclude their discussion about practice techniques by discussing the importance of varied practice. Varied practice makes it possible to transfer learning from one area and apply it to another. The authors compare the varied practice to the bean bag study found at the beginning of the chapter, and although the bean bag study deals with the mastery of motor skills, it can also be applied to cognitive learning. An example of this concept is neuroimaging studies that suggest that variable training engages different brain areas by practicing different kinds of activities. Cognitively speaking, learning a motor skill through varied practice is more complicated than learning through massed practice. Additionally, the part of the brain responsible for less challenging, less complex motor skills, however, appears to become most active in association with the learning of massed practice related motor skills. Based on these studies, authors infer that learning gained from massed practice is not as solidified in the brain as those of varied practice, which helps learners apply more difficult content more flexibly (Brown et al.,2014). 

           Next, the authors discuss how various practice strategies connect with developing discrimination skills and improving complex mastery. When we are learning, we must be able to discern different kinds of problems. Studies suggest that gains can be made through interleaved and varied practice. An advantage of interleaving and varying practice helps us learn how to understand the context, differentiate between problems, and solve them. This is not the case with masses practice and blocked repetition because they do not help with the critical sorting process. Critical thinking allows learners to go beyond simple forms of knowledge and reach a higher comprehension level (Brown et al.,2014).

An example of this is when the author talks about Doug Larsen, a pediatric neurologist, and instructor. He stated that every patient visit is like taking a test. It is crucial to be able to understand the symptoms and how they are related to each other. When diagnosing a patient, he is going through a mental checklist while also recalling his past experiences to make the best judgment call on what the patient needs. His instruction techniques are designed with various types of practice for students to have proficiency in treating their patients. He states that it is not just about what an individual knows but more about how they practice what they know that determines how well the learning will serve them later on (Brown et al.,2014). 

           In conclusion, the authors give the readers takeaways/ big ideas from the chapter. One takeaway is that learners believe they learn more by mass practicing material. Still, studies have shown that learners have gained more significant results by using varied and spaced out learning techniques. To have success with spaced out practice, learners need to space their practice out far enough that they are not forgetting the material and not making in a mindless task. Authors warn readers of the familiarity trap and the feeling it gives you that you have mastered the content and, therefore, no longer need to practice. They urge learners to no take short cuts during self-quizzing because they want learners to study in ways that help them to recall the information when being tested. Interleaving practice is essential because it can help you recognize different problems and select the right solution when you need it

Connections to personal life and/ or field of study

           Over the summer, I took a job at Kelly Services working for Assurant in Springfield, Ohio. My job responsibilities include making calls to insurance companies and agencies to obtain specific insurance information to make escrow payments if necessary. It is also my responsibility to make updates when necessary and ensure that I am taking in and giving the most accurate information. This chapter reminds me of my initial training at Assurant because I was learning all about the insurance world at the same time, I was learning the servicing systems I use to do my job. I can remember feeling overwhelmed and frustrated because as soon as I felt like I understood how to do something, I was moving on to the next task/concept. The chapter discusses interleaving practice and how it is underutilized because students feel frustrated with it because just as they are feeling comfortable with a concept, a new one is introduced. It was not until this chapter that I realized my managers at Assurant used interleaving practices in our training. My training allowed me to make deeper connections with the processes of my job, and when I am faced with a scenario I have not had before, I can use my prior knowledge to make connections to help me complete the task I am stuck on. 

Suggestions for student implementation

           For students to grasp the main concept from this chapter, we can practice the material in various ways. I would have them complete a graphic organizer/notebook. Students will take lecture notes on the left side of the notebook and notes from the book. On the right side, they can choose how they would like to interpret what they learned. This can be in the form of the following:

• Short story                                                     

• Wanted poster

• Crossword puzzle 

• Draw a cartoon

• Diagram 

Or whatever way they choose to show me then understand the material. This allows them to practice the material in a way that is not just about the test but done to enable them to make connections to what they are learning. 

 Suggestions for Instructor Implementations

           Reflection is a retrieval practice that instructors should incorporate within their classrooms. They can do this by asking the students to reflect on the assignment, quiz, activity, or test by asking them specific questions. These questions can include what they liked and did not like about the assignment. What their strengths and weaknesses were and what they can do to improve upon what they did. 

  The authors begin by discussing how learning occurs. Learning occurs by encoding, consolidation, and retrieval. Encoding is when your brain converts your realizations into mental representations of the patterns you observe. We call these new representations in the brain memory traces. Consolidation is when learners strengthen their mental realizations into their long-term memory. Consolidations stabilize the memory traces in the brain. During consolidations, scientists believe the brain relays the learning, which gives the learning meaning because the blank spots in understanding are filled and make connections to the learner's prior knowledge. Forming connections is important in consolidations. Lastly, retrieval is moving new concepts from short-term memory to long-term memory and keeping it there. Additionally, learners must link the concept with a diverse set of cues to recall the information (Brown et al.,2014). 

           Next, the authors discuss retrieval cues. They state there is no limit to how much we can remember, especially when linked to concepts we already know. The more that we learn, the more possibilities we have in making connections to our prior knowledge. What we can recall depends on the context, how recent we use it, and by the number of cues you have linked to the knowledge. The authors state it is not the knowledge itself that we forget but the cues we use to recall the information. They make the connection that forgetting is essential for new learning (Brown et al.,2014). 

           Then research discusses that just because something is easier does not mean that it is better. Psychologists have found the easier it is for you to retrieve something, the less it will benefit you in remembering. However, the more effort you put into retrieving something, the more practice of retrieving it will benefit you. An example of this concept is the study conducted with the baseball team at California Polytechnic State University. In this study, baseball players added two additional batting practices to their normal routine. One-half of the players' practices hitting forty-five pitches divided into three sets. Eat set consisted of 15 curveballs, 15 sliders, and 15 fastballs. However, the other half of the team practiced the same three pitches but did not practice them in any order. In the beginning of the study the players who had the random pitches did not show the same proficiency in the hitting the ball as those of their other teammates. The results of the study showed that those players who hit the ball with random pitches were hitting with more proficiency than their counterparts, The study revealed that difficulties in learning require more effort may show less progress at first, but over time it will make learning stronger, more precise and last longer. Additionally, the study revealed that the learning strategies we think work best for us often give us the illusion that we have mastered the skill (Brown et al.,2014). 

           Next, the authors focus on how effort in learning helps us by reconsolidating memory, creating mental models, broadening mastery, fostering conceptual learning, improving versatility, and priming the mind. Effort helps to reconsolidate memory because it helps to reload the skills or materials into our long-term memory and triggers deeper learning. Mental models enable us to discern situations and select the best response to the situation. Broadening mastery builds networks of knowledge that help support mastery of the content. It also helps multiply cues for retrieving knowledge and increased the likelihood that we will use the information later. Fostering conceptual learning is strengthened by interleaved practice because it boosts the learning process. Interleaving stimulates the brain to recognize similarities and differences and helps make connections in choosing the best outcome. Improving versatility helps you to apply what you have learned to new situations. Finally, priming the mind is similar to being asked to solve a problem before being taught how to solve it. This helps because struggling to solve the new problem helps you better retain the information when you are finally taught how to solve the problem (Brown et al.,2014). 

           Then authors expand on the concept of learning strategies that incorporate desirable difficulties. Desirable difficulties are a learning task that requires a learner to use a considerable amount of effort, but the result of the effort is improved retention of the material. One example of this concept is in testing. Instead of having learners take a multiple-choice test, they are asked to supply the answer. Having learners write a short answer or essay allows students to utilize higher-order thinking skills rather than giving them the information to retrieve the learning. Lastly, the authors discuss the use of reflection as a desirable difficulty because you are asking the student to reflect on what they have learned. An example of this concept is called "write to learn" where students are asked to write a brief explanation of key concepts discussed in class (Brown et al.,2014).  

           In conclusion, it is important to remember that learning is not all about getting the right answer but is found in the trial and error process. Researchers discuss Bonnie Blodgett, who is a writer and gardener. She states that many of her skills in botany come from her failures. This process is what sparked her interest in writing. Authors state this strategy helps learners gain a better understanding of what they know and what they need to know about a subject. Besides, knowing that failure is a part of the learning process allows learners not to feel the pressures of being perfect when learning the materials (Brown et al.,2014). 

Connections to personal life and/or field of study

           This chapter connects to my personal life because I find myself wanting to take the easy route in completing assignments as a student. This chapter discusses that just because something appears to be easier does not mean it is the best route to reach the goals you have. It is better to take the path that requires more effort because this will allow me to retain the information longer and help me make more connections. I also like the write to learn method because writing is an area that I struggle in and making connects to the material I am learning in class and improving my writing skill will benefit me as I continue to progress in my area of study.  

Suggestions for student implementation

           To get students to practice retrieving content from memory during I would have them write an exit slip for each class. This allows them to recall the material from class and ask questions on the content they are struggling with. This is a way to assess students' knowledge and help them solidify and make connections to the material. 

Suggestions for instructor implementation 

           Instructors should change the way they test students to help them recall the information from their own memory. An example of this is giving students a test that requires them to write a short answer over answering a multiple chosen question. Having them write a short answer or essay helps learners to solidify and make connects to the martial. 

The authors state there are two analytical systems we have. The first system is the automatic system, and it intuitive and immediate. It helps us to size up a situation as it is happening. The second system is slower and is a part of the system that allows us to think about choice and consequences, self-control, and helps us make decisions. System one is filled with illusion, while system two enables you to manage yourself. As humans, we are hard-wired to make judgments, and good judgment is something that we must acquire. In addition, we are often misled by illusions, cognitive bias and use stories to explain the world around us. To make better judgment calls, we need to be better at recognizing what we know and don't know and adapt to learning to give us results (Brown et al.,2014).

           Next, the authors discuss illusions and memory distortions because there are many ways in which our systems 1 and 2 can be led astray. The way we see the world is shaped by the hunger narrative that arises from discomfort, and we are searching for ways to make sense of the situation. Memory is linked to the judgments we make and the actions we take. We strengthen our memory every time we recall a memory because we make the brain's path to that memory more potent. Our memory is compared to a Google search algorithm because the more you connect the memory to what you know, the more mental cues you can use to retrieve the memory. Authors discuss that our most cherished memories may not be exactly how we remember them. They base this claim on the fact that an individual's memory can be distorted in many ways. We may not always be able to recall everything from memory, but we can recall the parts that have the biggest emotional significance to us. Memory illusions can be caused by suggestion, imagination inflation, inference, knew it all along effect, fluency illusions, and false consensus effect. These memory illusions show the learner that confidence in memory does not always mean the recall of the memory is accurate (Brown et al.,2014). 

           Then the authors discuss that individuals are unskilled an unaware of it. This phenomenon occurs in part because often, we do not receive negative feedback. This occurs because people do not like to give others this kind of feedback. This can also occur because individuals can be poor at reading how others are performing tasks and are unable to give them feedback on their performance (Brown et al.,2014). 

           In conclusion, we must use frequent testing and retrieval practices to understand what we know and what we don't know. Also, we should frequently use low stakes quizzes in the classroom to verify whether the students are learning and give them feedback on what areas need improvement. It is essential that once we have tested on a material that we continue to test on it to help students commit it to long term memory (Brown et al.,2014).

Connections to personal life and/or field of study

           This connects to my study field because middle-level learners are not a good judge of what they know and what they do not know. Besides, they are just beginning to use higher-order critical thinking skills and adding life experience to it as they go. Giving them tools that will help them gain a deeper understanding of their skill set will help them to be successful. 

Suggestions for student implementation

            To get the student to learn more about themselves, I would have them complete self-assessments throughout the school year. This will help them set goals and see what areas they are excelling at and what areas they can improve in. 

Suggestions for Instructor Implementation

           In order to assess what students are learning, it is crucial to have them complete several low-stakes quizzes and then give them feedback on areas that they can improve. 

Peter C. Brown, H. L. (2014). Make it Stick: The Science of Successful Learning. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.